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Ap Biology Reading Guide Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 3

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Chapter 22: Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life

As yous report this chapter, read several paragraphs at a time to grab the flow of ideas and empathise the reasoning that is being described. In some places, the text describes a narrative or story of events that led to Darwin'south theory of evolution. Therefore, first read the narrative to blot the large moving picture and then return to respond the few questions that back-trail this cloth.

Overview


      1. Ascertain evolution broadly and then give a narrower definition, as discussed in the overview.

Concept 22.one The Darwinian revolution challenged the traditional view of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species

This section takes a look at the historical setting and influences on Darwin, and it sets the stage for our formal study of development.


      1. How did each of the following sources view the origin of species?

Aristotle and Scala Naturae The Sometime Testament


Carolus Linnaeus Georges Cuvier

      1. Explain the role of fossils in rock strata as a window to life in earlier times.

      1. How would Georges Cuvier have explained the appearance of the tape of life shown in the rock strata?

      1. James Hutton and Charles Lyell were geologists whose ideas strongly influenced Darwin's thinking. What were the ideas each of them contributed?

James Hutton Charles Lyell


      1. What is the importance of the principle of uniformitarianism?


      1. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck proposed a mechanism for how life changes over time. Explicate the two principles of his mechanism.

use and disuse

inheritance of caused characteristics


      1. Although Lamarck'southward mechanism of evolution does not explain the changes in species over time, his thinking has been influential. What is considered to be the cracking importance of his ideas?

Concept 22.2 Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life


      1. Charles Darwin proposed that the machinery of evolution is natural selection and that it explains how adaptations arise. What are adaptations? Give two examples of adaptations.

      1. Explain the process of natural selection.


      1. Let's endeavor to summarize Darwin's observations that drive changes in species over time:

Observation

Cite an Example

ane. Variations in traits exist.

2. These variations (traits) are heritable.

three. Species overproduce.

4. There is contest for resources; non all offspring survive.

      1. From these four observations, which two inferences did Darwin make?

      1. It is of import to call up that differences in heritable traits can lead to differential reproductive success. This means that the individuals who have the necessary traits to promote survival in the current environment will leave the most offspring. What tin this differential reproductive success lead to over fourth dimension?

      1. To demonstrate your agreement of this section, complete the post-obit sentences:

practice non evolve. evolve.

Now, take out your highlighter and marker the data in the box above. Hold these ideas firmly in your brain! Finally, if y'all are ever asked to explain Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection (a common AP essay question), do non pull out the phrase "survival of the fittest." Instead, cite the points fabricated in question 11 and explain the inferences that are drawn from them.

Concept 22.3 Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence


      1. Use Effigy 22.13 to explain how John Endler'due south work with guppies demonstrated appreciable evolutionary change.


      1. What is the role of 3TC in inhibiting HIV reproduction?


      1. Explain the development of drug resistance to 3TC.

      1. Practice antibiotics cause bacteria to go resistant? Explain your response.

      1. Permit'southward make a listing of the four evidences for evolution that are described in this concept.

Evidence for Development

      1. How does the fossil record give evidence for evolution?


      1. What is meant by each of the post-obit terms? Requite an example of each.

Term

Example

Homologous structures

Vestigial structures

Analogous structures

(see p. 465)

      1. How practise homologous structures give show for evolution?

      1. What is summarized in an evolutionary tree?

      1. Figure 22.19 shows an evolutionary tree. What is indicated by each branch point? Marker each branch point.

      1. What is indicated by the hatch marks?


      1. Use the tree beneath to answer this question: Are crocodiles more closely related to lizards or to birds? Explain your response.


      1. On the evolutionary tree, characterization the vertical lines to the correct, and comment the key characteristic that marks each grouping.

      1. Organisms that are just distantly related can resemble each other. Explain convergent evolution, and describe how analogous structures tin can ascend.

      1. Convergent evolution might be summarized like this: Similar problem, like solution. Tin can you give 2 examples of convergent evolution?


Study Tip

Homologous structures show testify of relatedness. (whale fin, bat wing)
Analogous structures are similar solutions to similar bug but do not indicate close relatedness. (bird fly, butterfly wing)


      1. What is biogeography? How is it affected by continental drift and the presence of owned species?

Let'due south wrap upwards all of these ideas with a concluding summary.



ORGANIZE YOUR THOUGHTS

  1. Development is change in species over time.

  2. Heritable variations exist inside a population.

  3. These variations can result in differential reproductive success.

  4. Over generations, this can upshot in changes in the genetic composition of the population.

And remember: Individuals do not evolve! Populations evolve.


Testing Your Noesis: Self-Quiz Answers

Now you should exist ready to test your noesis. Identify your answers here:


1. 2. 3. four. 5. 6.

Name Catamenia


Chapter 23: The Evolution of Populations

This affiliate begins with the idea that we focused on as we closed the last chapter: Individuals do not evolve! Populations evolve. The Overview looks at the work of Peter and Rosemary Grant with Galápagos finches to illustrate this point, and the rest of the affiliate examines the modify in populations over time. Every bit in the last chapter, start read each concept to go the large picture and and then go back to work on the details presented by our questions. Don't lose sight of the conceptual understanding past getting lost in the details!

Overview


  1. What is microevolution?

  1. What are the three principal mechanisms that tin cause changes in allele frequency?


  1. Which is the only mechanism that is adaptive, or improves the match between organisms and their surroundings?

Concept 23.1 Mutation and sexual reproduction produce the genetic variation that makes development possible


  1. Considering Darwin did not know nearly the work of Gregor Mendel, he could not explain how organisms pass heritable traits to their offspring. In looking at genetic variation, what are discrete characters, and what are quantitative characters?


  1. Using the techniques of molecular biological science, what are the two ways of measuring genetic variation in a population?


  1. Geographic variation may exist shown in a graded manner along a geographic axis known as a cline. What external factors might produce a cline? Why does the beingness of a cline suggest natural selection?


  1. What is the ultimate source of new alleles?

  1. Mutations are whatsoever change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's Dna. These mutations provide the raw material from which new traits may ascend and be selected. What occurs in a indicate mutation?

  1. What is translocation? How could it be beneficial?

  1. How does cistron duplication occur? How might it play a role in evolution?


  1. Much of the genetic variation that makes development possible comes through sexual reproduction. What are the three mechanisms by which sexual reproduction shuffles existing alleles?

Concept 23.2 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can exist used to examination whether a population is evolving


  1. What is a population?


  1. What is a gene pool?


  1. The greater the number of stock-still alleles, the lower the species' diversity. What does it mean to say that an allele is fixed?


  1. The Hardy-Weinberg principle is used to describe a population that is not evolving.What does this principle state?


  1. If the frequency of alleles in a population remains abiding, the population is at Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium. There are five weather for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Information technology is very of import for you to know these conditions, so enter them neatly into the box below.

CONDITIONS FOR HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM


1.

2.

iii.

iv.

v.

It is non very likely that all five of these conditions will occur, is information technology? Allelic frequencies alter. Populations evolve. This information can be tested by applying the Hardy Weinberg equation. Allow's await at how to do this.



Equation for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
p 2 + 2 pq + q 2 = 1
Where p 2 is equal to the frequency of the homozygous ascendant in the population, iipq is equal to the frequency of all the heterozygotes in the population, and q two is equal to the frequency of the homozygous recessive in the population.
Consider a factor locus that exists in two allelic forms, A and a, in a population.
Let p = the frequency of A, the ascendant allele and q = the frequency of a, the recessive allele.

So,


p 2 = AA,

q 2 = aa,

two pq = Aa
If nosotros know the frequency of one of the alleles, we can calculate the frequency of the other allele:

p + q = 1, and so

p = 1 – q q = one – p


  1. So, here is a problem to try. Suppose in a establish population that red flowers (R) are ascendant to white flowers (r). In a population of 500 individuals, 25% testify the recessive phenotype. How many individuals would you expect to exist homozygous ascendant and heterozygous for this trait? (A complete solution for this problem is at the terminate of this Reading Guide.)

  1. In a population of plants, 64% showroom the dominant flower color (cerise), and 36% of the plants have white flowers. What is the frequency of the dominant allele? (In that location are a couple of twists in this problem, so read and recall advisedly. A complete solution for this problem is at the end of this Reading Guide.)

Concept 23.3 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene menstruum can alter allele frequencies in a population


  1. First, let'due south try to summarize the big idea from this section. Scan through the entire concept to pull out this information. Three major factors alter allelic frequency and bring about evolutionary modify. List each factor, and requite an explanation.

Gene

Explanation

  1. Which of the factors above results in a random, nonadaptive change in allelic frequencies?

  1. Which of the factors above tends to reduce the genetic differences between populations and brand populations more similar?

  1. Of the three factors you lot listed above, only 1 results in individuals that are better suited to their environment. Which is it?

  1. Explicate what happens in each of these examples of genetic drift:

founder effect bottleneck consequence

Concept 23.4 Natural option is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution


  1. In evolutionary terms, fitness refers only to the ability to leave offspring and contribute to the gene pool of the adjacent generation. Information technology may have zippo to do with being large, or stiff, or aggressive. Define relative fitness.

  1. What is the relative fitness of a sterile mule?

  1. Figure 23.13 is important considering information technology helps explain the iii modes of selection. Label each type of selection, and make full in the chart to explain what is occurring.


Blazon of Choice

How It Works

Stabilizing

Directional

Disruptive

  1. What is oft the event of sexual selection?

  1. What is the difference between intrasexual selection and intersexual selection? Requite an example of each type of selection.

  1. Explain two ways in which genetic variation is preserved in a population.

  1. Discuss what is meant by heterozygote advantage, and use sickle-cell anemia as an example.

  1. Finally, give iv reasons why natural selection cannot produce perfect organisms.

Testing Your Cognition: Self-Quiz Answers

Now you lot should be ready to exam your knowledge. Place your answers here: one. 2. 3. 4. 5.


Solution to Question 17
Let p = frequency of the ascendant allele (R) and q = frequency of the recessive allele (r).
1. q ii = frequency of the homozygous recessive = 25% = 0.25. Since q 2 = 0.25, q = 0.five. 2. Now, p + q =1, then p = 0.5.

iii. Homozygous dominant individuals are RR or p 2 = 0.25, and they will represent (0.25)(500) = 125 individuals.


4. The heterozygous individuals are calculated from 2pq = (2)(0.v)(0.v) = 0.5, and in a population of 500 individuals will be (0.5)(500) = 250 individuals.

Solution to Question xviii
This problem requires you to recognize that individuals with the dominant trait tin can exist either homozygous or heterozygous. Therefore, yous cannot only accept the foursquare root of 0.64 to go p. For problems of this type, you lot must brainstorm with the homozygous recessive grouping. So . . .
Let p = frequency of the dominant allele (R) and q = frequency of the recessive allele (r)
1. q 2 = frequency of the homozygous recessive = 36% = 0.36. Because q ii = 0.36, q = 0.6. 2. At present, p + q =i, and so p = 0.4.

3. Notice that this problem asks for the frequency of the dominant allele (p), not the frequency of the homozygous dominant individuals (p ii). And so, you are done . . . the frequency of the dominant allele = 40%.


Name Period


Chapter 24: The Origin of Species

Overview


  1. What was Darwin's "mystery of mysteries"?

  1. Define speciation.

  1. Distinguish between microevolution and macroevolution.

Concept 24.1 The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation


  1. Apply the biological species concept to ascertain species.


  1. What is required for the germination of new species?


  1. What are hybrids?


  1. Explain the two types of barriers that maintain reproductive isolation.

  1. The following charts summarize the various ways that reproductive isolation is maintained. Explain and give an example of each type of isolating machinery.

Prezygotic Reproductive Barriers

Caption

Example

Habitat isolation

Temporal isolation

Behavioral isolation

Mechanical isolation

Gametic isolation


Postzygotic Reproductive Barriers

Explanation

Example

Reduced hybrid viability

Reduced hybrid fertility

Hybrid breakdown


  1. The concept of reproductive isolation is essential for an agreement of speciation, so we are going to accept you look at information technology again. Refer to Figure 24.iv, and characterization the sketch beneath. Name each blazon of isolating mechanism.

Concept 24.two Speciation tin can take place with or without geographic separation


  1. Gene menstruum can exist interrupted in two main means. Explain and requite an example of each by labeling and annotating this effigy, which shows an ancestral species of fish and so the ii modes of speciation.


  1. What blazon of speciation is caused past a bulwark such as the Thou Canyon?
.

  1. Sympatric speciation occurs in populations that alive in the same geographic surface area. How is this possible?

  1. Your response to question xiii should have listed polyploidy, habitat differentiation, and sexual selection. These are not piece of cake concepts to empathize, and so let's spend some time with each of them. To begin, use the following effigy to explain autopolyploidy.


  1. Now, utilise this figure to explain allopolyploid speciation.


  1. Earlier we exit allopatric and sympatric speciation, explain what happens in sexual selection, and how this procedure can bulldoze sympatric speciation.

Concept 24.3 Hybrid zones provide opportunities to study factors that crusade reproductive isolation


  1. What are hybrid zones?

Concept 24.iv Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly, and it can issue from changes in few or many genes


  1. Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge coined the term punctuated equilibria. What is meant by a punctuated pattern?


  1. This effigy shows 2 different views of speciation. Characterization this figure, and explain how each of the pictures explains speciation.

Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers

Now you should be fix to test your noesis. Place your answers here:


1. two. three. four. 5. 6.

Name Menstruation


Chapter 25: The History of Life on World

Overview


    1. In the last affiliate, you were asked nearly macroevolution. To brainstorm this affiliate, give some examples of macroevolution. Include at to the lowest degree i novel example non in your text.

Concept 25.1 Weather on early World made the origin of life possible


    1. How onetime is the planet? How old is the earliest bear witness of life on World?

    1. The current theory of the origin of life suggests a sequence of four chief stages. Summarize them here.

one.

2.

3.

iv.

    1. In your chart in a higher place, the starting time stage is the synthesis of organic molecules. Consider the early planet, probably thick with water vapor and stinky with methyl hydride, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. What gas was missing from this early mix? Why?

    1. A. I. Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane hypothesized that the early atmosphere was a reducing environment. What did they suggest was the source of free energy for the early organic synthesis?

    1. In 1953 at the Academy of Chicago, Stanly Miller and Harold Urey tested the Oparin- Haldane hypothesis with this apparatus. (It is shown in Chapter 4, Effigy 4.2, and then y'all accept seen information technology before.) Explain the elements of this experiment, using arrows to bespeak what occurs in various parts of the appliance.


    1. What was nerveless in the sample for chemic analysis? What was concluded from the results of this experiment?

    1. What are protobionts? What properties of life exercise they demonstrate?

    1. What did Thomas Cech propose was the first genetic cloth, Deoxyribonucleic acid or RNA?

    1. What are ribozymes?


    1. Explain the evidence for an early on "RNA world."

Concept 25.2 The fossil tape documents the history of life


    1. In what blazon of rock are fossils found?

    1. What practise we not know from analyzing rock strata?


    1. Rocks and fossils are dated in several ways. Relative dating uses the order of rock strata to determine the relative age of fossils. Radiometric dating uses the decay of radioactive isotopes to determine the age of the rocks or fossils. Information technology is based on the charge per unit of decay, or half-life of the isotope. To determine the absolute age of a fossil, radiometric dating is used. Use this figure to explain the concept of radiometric dating. Characterization cardinal elements.


    1. What is the historic period range for which carbon-fourteen dating may be used?

    1. To appointment fossils outside the rage of carbon-14 dating, researchers use indirect methods of establishing absolute fossil age. Explicate two of these methods, potassium-40 and magnetism shifts.


    1. What are three groups of tetrapods?

    1. Cite three ways of distinguishing mammal fossils from the other 2 groups of tetrapods.

Concept 25.iii Key events in life's history include the origins of single-celled and multicelled organisms and the colonization of country


    1. What was the earliest form of life on the planet? How long ago did this life-form kickoff occur?

    1. What unique ability was originated with blue-green alga? How did this alter life on Earth and atomic number 82 to a wave of mass extinctions?


    1. The first eukaryotes did not announced until approximately two.1 billion years agone. Using the figure, characterization and explain the evolution of eukaryotes by endosymbiosis.


    1. Summarize 3 lines of prove that back up the model of endosymbiosis.

    1. Apply the clock model to notation the following events in the life of the planet: origin of the World, appearance of prokaryotes, development of atmospheric oxygen, occurrence of eukaryotic cells, multicellularity, and life moves onto state. For each event, also label the number of years agone it occurred.

Concept 25.4 The ascension and fall of ascendant groups reflect continental migrate, mass extinctions, and adaptive radiations


    1. If you lot accept not studied geology, you will find this concept introduces a fascinating look at the changes in our planet as explained past continental migrate. Define continental drift. How can continents movement?

    1. On the figure below, label Pangaea, Gondwana, and Laurasia.


    1. See if you lot can respond each of these short questions:

      1. What is the San Andreas Fault?

      1. What caused the uplift of the Himalayas?

      1. How can a fossil freshwater reptile be institute in both Brazil and w Africa, areas separated today by a wide surface area of body of water?

      1. Why are no eutherians (placental) mammals ethnic to Commonwealth of australia?

    1. A mass extinction is the loss of big numbers of species in a curt period, caused by global environmental changes. What acquired the Permian mass extinction 250 one thousand thousand years agone (mya)? Summarize the species that were lost.

    1. A 2d important mass extinction is the Cretaceous mass extinction that happened near 65 mya. Everyone'due south favorite group, the dinosaurs, was lost, along with more half of all marine species. What caused it?

    1. What are adaptive radiations?

    1. Why did a large-scale adaptive radiations occur after each mass extinction?

Concept 25.five Major changes in trunk form tin outcome from changes in the sequences and regulation of developmental genes


    1. What two areas of biological science are merged in the field of study ordinarily called evo-devo?


    1. What is an evolutionary change in the charge per unit or timing of developmental events?


    1. Homeotic genes are master regulatory genes that decide the location and system of trunk parts. Mutations in a homeotic gene can have a profound consequence on morphology. Homeotic gene mutations tin can contribute to the potential for evolutionary change. The Hox genes are one class of homeotic genes. What practise they control?

Concept 25.six Evolution is not goal oriented


    1. When a structure that has evolved in one context becomes co-opted for another purpose, this outcome is called .

Testing Your Cognition: Self-Quiz Answers

Now you should be ready to examination your cognition. Place your answers hither:


1. 2. 3. 4. v. half dozen. 7.


Copyright © 2010 Pearson Educational activity, Inc.


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